User recognition without cookies or local storage This technique (to detect same users without cookies - or even without ip address) is called browser fingerprinting. Basically you crawl

Authentication and User Recognition Without Explicit Login

It is possible to use mechanisms similar to those employed by Amazon and AdSense to identify specific profiles as distinct and unique individuals, enabling personalized advertising experiences. Both Amazon and Google utilize advanced analytics and machine learning algorithms to track user behavior across various platforms and devices, thereby tailoring advertisements to individual preferences and browsing history.

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